Outline Paper Title: the Common Law Tradition and Sources of Law Essay

I. THESIS STATEMENT: A. Common law is a legal system that is largely formed by the decisions previously made by courts and not imposed by legislatures or other government officials. The reasoning used to interpret this type of law is known as casuistry, or case-based reasoning. It is a strict, principle-based reasoning that uses the circumstances of a case to evaluate the laws that are applicable. Decisions that were made about similar cases are valuable, and the case in question is evaluated on the basis of past cases. The strength of the similarity among the cases, in turn, strengthens the reasoning based on them. B. The term â€Å"common law† also underlines the fact that this type of law did not originate from equity, maritime and other special branches of law. Statutes serve as brief explanations of law and therefore are not very explanatory. Codification is the process by which a statue is passed, expressed within a single document, so that it is understood within existing law rather than creating the need for new laws. C. The common-law system prevails in England, the United States, and other countries colonized by England. The common-law system is used in all the states of the United States except Louisiana, where French Civil Law combined with English Criminal Law to form a hybrid system. Anglo-American common law traces its roots to the medieval idea that the law as handed down from the king’s courts represented the common custom of the people. II. WHAT IS COMMON LAW? A. Common Law is the body of law developed from custom or judicial decisions in English and U.S. courts, not attributable to a legislature. III. WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF AMERICAN LAW? A. The United States Constitution and the constitutions of the various states B. Statutory Law – including laws passed by Congress, state legislatures, and local governing bodies. C. Regulations created by administrative agencies (such as the United States Food and Drug Administration). D. Case law and common law doctrines. E. Secondary sources of law are books and articles that summarize and clarify the primary sources of law (i.e., legal encyclopedias, treatises, and articles in law reviews). Several SourcesConstitutional, statutory, and case law—these are your tools. The United StatesConstitution is the overriding document. It is the Supreme Law of the Land. Eachstate has its own constitution. State and federal statutes are interpreted by judgesthrough case law. These sources play in each practice area. For example,constitutional law governs searches and seizures in a criminal matter. Statutesprovide the framework for real estate transactions, and case law interprets andapplies both constitutional and statutory law. There is much to learn.| IV.CONSITUTIONAL LAW A. The Federal Constitution i. The United States Constitution, as amended, is the supreme law of the land. ii. A law in violation of the United States Constitution will be declared unconstitutional and will not be enforced. iii. The United States Constitution sets forth the powers of the three branches of the federal government and the relationship between the three branches. iv. Constitutional Rights 1. The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are commonly known as the Bill of Rights. v. The Courts and Constitutional Law 1. The broad principles enunciated in the Constitution are given form and substance by the courts. 2. Courts Balance the Right to Free Speech a. Even though the First Amendment guarantees the right to free speech, the Supreme Court has made it clear that certain types of speech will not be  protected. 3. Free Speech and the Internet a. The Internet has raised new problems for the courts in determining how to define and apply the protections of free speech. B. State Constitutions i. Each state also has a constitution that sets forth the general organization, powers, and limits of the state government. ii. A state constitution is supreme within the state’s respective borders, so long as it does not conflict with the United States Constitution. C. Constitutional Law and the Paralegal i. Paralegals often assist attorneys in handling cases that involve constitutional rights or provisions. ii. Knowledge of constitutional law is beneficial because the authority and underlying rationale for the substantive and procedural laws governing many areas of law are found in the Constitution. V. STATUTORY LAW A. Statutes are the laws enacted by legislative bodies at any level of government. B. Federal Statutes. i. Federal statutes are enacted by the United States Congress and apply to every state. ii. Any federal statute that violates the United States Constitution will be held unconstitutional. C. State and Local Statutes and Ordinances i. State statutes are laws enacted by state legislatures. ii. Any state law that is found to conflict with the United State Constitution, or with that state’s constitution, will be deemed unconstitutional. D. Uniform Laws i. Uniform (â€Å"model†) statutes are drafted for adoption by the states. ii. A state can adopt or reject all or part of a uniform law, as the state legislature wishes. iii. An example of a uniform law is the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). E. The Expanding Scope of Statutory Law i. Legislative bodies and administrative agencies assume an ever-increasing share of lawmaking. F. Statutory Law and the Paralegal i. A paralegal may often assist in cases involving violations of statutory law. ii. A paralegal working on cases governed by statutory law needs to know how to both locate and interpret the relevant state or federal statutes. VI. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW A. Agency Creation and Function i. Administrative agencies are created by legislatures to administer and enforce legislation and to issue rules to implement the goals of specific legislation. ii. Examples of federal administrative agencies are: 1. Environmental Protection Agency 2. Occupational Safety and Health Administration 3. Food and Drug Administration. A. Administrative Law and the Paralegal i. Paralegals frequently deal with administrative agencies. 1. Paralegals may also work for administrative agencies, drafting new rules, mediating disputes, and numerous other tasks. Consulting CasesCase law represents judicial opinions. Judicial opinions represent opinions written by judgeson a particular case. Understanding case law can be difficult. It requires analytical skills. Suchskills are acquired over time and after reading many cases. But do not despair. When you findthat perfect case, it will be worth it.| VII. CASE LAW AND THE COMMON LAW TRADITION A. The Origins and Nature of the Common Law i. Common law originated in medieval England with the creation of the king’s court. ii. Courts developed the common law rules from the principles underlying judges’ decisions in actual legal controversies. iii. Judges attempted to be consistent. When possible, they based their decisions on the principles suggested by earlier cases. iv. The practice of deciding new cases with reference to former decisions, or precedents, is a cornerstone of the American judicial system. v. Stare decisis means â€Å"to stand on decided cases.† vi. Under this doctrine, judges are expected to abide by the law as established by previous court decisions. vii. Sometimes a court will depart from precedent if it decides the precedent should no longer be followed. VIII. WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF PRECEDENT TO THE JUDICIAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESS? A. The judicial process is informative, thought-provoking and often insightful, albeit verbose. It is also timely given the intense political nature of current federal judicial confirmation proceedings. Under the doctrine of stare decisis, once a court has set forth a principle of law as being applicable to a certain set of facts, that court and courts of lower rank must adhere to that principle and apply it in future cases involving similar fact patterns. Stare decisis have two aspects: first, decisions made by a higher court are binding on lower courts; and second, a court should not overturn its own precedents unless there is a strong reason to do so. IX. WHAT ARE EQUITABLE AND LEGAL REMEDIES? A. Equitable remedies are judicial remedies developed by courts of equity from about the time of Henry VII to provide more flexible responses to changing social conditions than was possible in precedent-based common law.

Froebel’s Kindergarten Essay

Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 2 fullest extent. Who is Friedrich Froebel? What did he do to become so memorable? He created the Froebel’s Gifts. What are Froebel’s Gifts? How has Froebel influenced today’s children? In the town called Oberweibach located in Germany is where a man named Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born on April 21, 1782 (Manning, J. P. , 2005. p. 371). Nine months after Froebel was born his mother fell ill and passed away (Friedrich Froebel Biography, 1999). His father Johann Jacob Froebel was a Lutheran pastor. He remarried when Froebel was 4 – years – old. Froebel’s stepmother did not care for him and his father was too busy for him. This resulted in Froebel having a terrible childhood. Having a family with a father and stepmother whom did not care or did not have the time is what pushed Froebel to become who he was before he passed. It pushed him to become stronger and more independent. Froebel’s father thought of him as dimwitted. Froebel’s father insisted he goes to a school for all girls (Friedrich Froebel Biography, 1999). Froebel most likely felt very small as if no one listened to him. Froebel had five older brothers. His brothers did not live at home with him, his father, and his  stepmother. One day his eldest brother came to stay at his father’s house for quite some time. Froebel and his eldest brother had a discussion about plants one day. Froebel, â€Å"expressed delight at seeing the purple threads of the hazel buds (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 12). † His eldest brother shared with him the knowledge that there was a similar sexual difference in plants. Froebel says, â€Å"From that time humanity and nature, the life of the soul and the life of the flower, were closely knit together in my mind; and I can still see hazel buds, like angels, opening for me the great God’s temple of nature (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H.1889. p. 12). † This is where the first seed was already planted into Froebel’s mind. He had seen a connection with humanity and nature itself. This connection developed all throughout Froebel’s life. In 1793, Froebel moved. Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 3 Froebel moved to Stadt-Ilm to live with his maternal uncle, Herr Hoffman (Friedrich Froebel Biography, 1999). When Froebel moved he was just 10 – years – old. He was allowed to attend the local school. He no longer had to attend the school for girls. Froebel thought the best subjects at the local school in Stadt-Ilm were reading, writings, arithmetic, and religion  (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 20). His favorite subject to study was arithmetic. In 1798, his father tried to get Froebel an apprenticeship for farmers, but they wanted to high of a premium. His father came to terms with a forester (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 24). By this age, Froebel wanted to be an agriculturist. Ever since he was a child, he loved nature, such as the mountains, fields, forests, and flowers. In order for Froebel to do well at becoming an agriculturist he would have to be acquainted with geometry and land-surveying (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 20). The forester had a reputation as land-surveyor and valuer. Froebel started his apprentice for the forester on a Midsummer Day in 1797. Froebel was only 15 and a half. He apprenticed for the forester for two years learning forestry, valuing, geometry and land-surveying (Michael, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 20). After two years Froebel left the apprentice job even though the forester wanted him to stay another year. Froebel wanted to learn mathematics and botany. Botany is the study of plants. He received a book on botany where his love of nature flourished even stronger. It was the year 1800 when he left the forester. Froebel had decided to continue his schooling, only problem was he did not have the money. He had a very small piece of property left to him that he inherited from his mother. He did not think it would be sufficient enough. He had to ask his trustee for the consent to realise his property (Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. 1889. p. 28). When he obtained it at the age of 17 and a half he went to Jena as a student in 1799. He later went to Yverdon. Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 4 â€Å"Froebel attended the training institute that was run by Johann Pestalozzi (Mann, H. , 1887). He attended the institute from 1808 to 1810. When Froebel left the institution within the two years, he left with the basic principles that Pestalozzi used for his theory. Those basic principles were, â€Å"permissive school atmosphere, emphasis on nature, and object lesson (Froebel Web, 1998-2008). † Froebel was raised to be very religious and because he was religious his view of education became religious. After the school in Yverdon Froebel went to the University of Gottingen in 1811, but then switched to the school in Berlin to study Mineralogy in 1812 (Froebel Web, 1998-2008). Froebel joined the â€Å"Black Riflemen†. In 1813 to 1814, Froebel joined the â€Å"Black Riflemen†. He was in the Prussian army against Napoleon (Froebel Web, 1998-2008). In the army against Napoleon is where he met two people. Their names were Heinrich Langentha and Wilhelm Middendorf. They ended up becoming friends whom supported Froebel and remained with him throughout his lifetime (Froebel Web, 1998-2008). In 1826, Froebel wrote his first book called The Education of Man. It was one of the most important books that he wrote. In 1885, his book was translated into English. Many say this was his greatest work. In 1837, he opened his first kindergarten. Froebel moved to Bad Blankenburg (near Keilhau), where he opened his first kindergarten (Columbia, 2013). Froebel did not just open his first kindergarten. He was 58 years old when he created the first kindergarten. He became known as Father Kindergarten. In German, kindergarten means â€Å"Children’s Garden (Braun & Edwards, 1972). † Froebel’s kindergarten was created for younger children. He created his kindergarten for children ages three to seven. School back then started at age seven. His kindergarten is where he applied all of the knowledge that he gathered over many years from schooling or his own self-discovery. Froebel believed that children learned through play. According to Froebel, when children played Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 5 it was â€Å"free expression of what is in a child’s soul† giving â€Å"joy, freedom, contentment, inner and outer, rest, [and] peace with the world (Boyd, A. , n. d. ). † Froebel incorporated plants into his school as well. Froebel stated: â€Å"Children are like tiny flowers, they are varied and need care, but each is beautiful alone and glorious when seen in the community of peers (Nichols, R. 2010). † Froebel realized that each child is unique and each child may learn differently than another. â€Å"Froebel’s philosophy revolved around three main ideas: the unity of creation, respect for children as individuals, and the importance of play in children’s education (Braun & Edwards, 1972). † All of Froebel’s ideas are shaped by his inherent belief in the linking of man, and of nature and God. In 1847, Froebel took his idea of women being trained as teachers to an all male conference where the subject and idea was evoked (Hewes, 1990. pp. 7-8). He was laughed at and ridiculed, but that never stopped him. Froebel in 1849 began training women to become kindergarten teachers. He believed that women would make a better teacher because women  were the ones who raised the children in their homes. Froebel’s kindergarten teachers became more of guides rather than lecturers to the children (Nichols, R. 2010). Froebel created gifts that he thought would help children. Froebel created these gifts so that children could continue to learn through play. Froebel built blocks that were 1 inch cubes. He thought that the decorative blocks lacked a realistic view. Froebel believed that building with these blocks would help children progress from the material to the abstract (LeBlanc, M. 2010). He also created gifts called occupations. â€Å"Occupations were  objects in which children would shape and manipulate freely using their own creativity, such as clay, sand, beads, and rope (â€Å"Who Invented Kindergarten? ’, 2010). † His classroom was set for individual development aimed towards each child. He had a garden where children could play and learn more about how plants worked. Froebel believed that children were like plants, such Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 6 as planting a seed and help it grow. They sprout and bloom to become something glorious one day. Froebel is so memorable that even in 2014 people still talk about his accomplishments. In  2010, the University of the Incarnate Word (UIW) celebrated the 238th anniversary of Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel’s birth. In Texas there were 14 teachers in 2006 that went to Germany. They visited every site and institution were Froebel lived and worked (Campos, D. , 2010. p. 74). Froebel’s philosophy is still alive today. Many schools in the world today still use Froebel’s philosophy. Many kindergartens use his curriculum to a point. He used free play, games, songs, stories, and crafts to stimulate their imagination while developing physical and motor skills (Nichols, R. 2010). He also included mathematics. Schools today even with the change of technology, still have children play with Froebel’s gifts and believe in play with to learn, but many schools no longer allow religion to be taught. Children entering into kindergarten start at age 5-6 years old. From the time Froebel opened his first kindergarten in 1837, until he became ill and passed away at the age of 70 in 1852, more than 90 kindergartens were opened all throughout Germany (New World Encyclopedia, n. d. ). In conclusion, Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born on April 21, 1782. He had a terrible childhood that pushed him to become the person he is today. Froebel had a relationship with plants that flourished over many years. He became an apprentice for a forester in 1797. He went to multiple schools and self-taught himself. He went to multiple classes by Pestalozzi. He joined the â€Å"Black Riflemen† where he met his two lifelong friends named Heinrich Langentha and Wilhelm Middendorf. He moved to Bad Blankenburg where he opened his first kindergarten in 1837. He became known as Father Kindergarten. He created gifts that allowed children to build or even manipulate to all development of physical and motor skills. He is still known Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 7  today for his philosophy and his development of kindergarten. Today teachers still use play as a way for children to learn by. References Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 8 Boyd, A. , (1988). Friedrich Froebel and Kindergarten. Retrieved from Engines of Our Ingenuity Web site: http://www. uh. edu/engines/epi2475. htm Braun, S. J. , & Edwards, E. P. (1972). History and Theory of Early Childhood Education. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel. (n. d. ). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 29, 2014, from http://www. newworldencyclopedia. org/entry/Friedrich_Wilhelm_August_Fr%C3%B6bel Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel. (2013). In Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6th Ed. , Vol. 1). Retrieved July 10, 2014, from http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? diect=true&db=a9h&AN=39007863&authtype=cookie,cpid&custid=ns017336&site=ehost-live &scope=site Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) – Biography, Froebel’s Kindergarten Philosophy, The Kindergarten curriculum, Diffusion of the Kindergarten. (1999). Retrieved July 29, 2014, from http://education. stateuniversity. com/pages/1999/Froebel-Friedrich-1782-1852. html Froebel, F. [1826] 1887. The Education of Man. London: Appleton Froebel Web (1998a). Froebel Timeline. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from http://www. froebelweb. org/webline. html Hewes, D. W. (1990). Historical foundations of early childhood tear training. The evolution of kindergarten teacher preparation. In B. Spodek, & O. N. Saracho (Eds. ), Early childhood teacher preparation (pp. 1-22). New York: Teachers College Press. Running head: FRIEDRICH FROEBEL RESEARCH ESSAY 9 LeBlanc, M. â€Å"Friedrich Froebel: His life and influence on education. † Community Playthings. < http://www. communityplaythings. co. uk/resources/articles/friedrich-froebel. html > 21, Dec. 2010. Manning, J. P. (2005). Rediscovering Froebel: A Call to Re-examine his Life & Gifts. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(6), 371-376. doi:10. 1007/s10643-005-0004-8 Michaelis, E. & Moore, H. (1889). Autobiography of Friedrich Froebel. (pp. 1-30). Syracuse, n. y. : C. W. Bardeen Nichols, R. â€Å"Friedrich Froebel: Founder of the First Kindergarten. â€Å"HubPages. com. http://hubpages. com/hub/Friedrich-Froebel-Founder-of-the-First-Kindergarten > 21 Dec. 2010. â€Å"Who Invented Kindergarten? † German Culture. com. < http://www. germanculture. com/us/library/weekly/kindergarten. htm > 21 Dec. 2010.

NEW YORK STATE CONSTITUTIONAL RATIFICATION CONVENTION DEBATE Essay

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The most dangerous man in america & the Pentagon Papers Essay

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Customer Service Satisfaction at the University of London Library Essay - 1

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The role of social media in the 2011 Japanese disaster Dissertation

The role of social media in the 2011 Japanese disaster - Dissertation Example This is simply because the media are always after of informing the public of the great risk involved nd the needed recovery (Miles and Morse, 2007). The world witnessed such event due to the availability of live coverage and actual footage of the disaster’s destructive force. In situation like this, the media are the most important sources of information. They eventually have pervasive power to disseminate information to keep everyone highly informed about things that matters to the entire humanity. For many decades, media have remarkably improved and evolved due to its vibrant dominance in imparting information throughout the world. Their scope of spreading the right information has reached not just within a certain place but today it has remarkably moved over in the entire world. The media have remarkably become among of the most important tools for public relations activity and news coverage (Courtright and Slaughter, 2007). In the midst of advanced information technology, the ultimate goal of the media is to aggressively scatter information from one place to another in a fast pace. In fact, people are bombarded with information daily because of the capacity of the media to transform certain information to be relevant to them. People are always looking forward to the right information and they always expect to have it from the media. In particular, this paper tries to discuss the role of social media in the 2011 Japanese disasters such as earthquake and tsunami. The role of television One of the oldest technologies invented by human is television. Today, in wherever part of the world, it is one of the most important sources of information and entertainment of the people. Television has become the major part of the daily lives of... One of the Japanese in an interview told the media about his horrible experience during the earthquake and its series of aftershock. ‘I have witnessed how strong the magnitude of the earthquake was. The whole building was already moving like a cradle does.’ Due to this coverage of the media, people from other parts of the world were given enough idea how horrible was the said experience. They were given the right and even detailed information how strong was the magnitude of that earthquake plus they were provided with the actual idea of the tsunami through a live aerial video footage. In the midst of 2011 Japan disasters, it is evident that television has become one of the most important sources of information. For instance, it is through television news reports that individuals have been informed about their family relatives abroad especially those in Japan. Specifically, television has become one important instrument that could be used for precautionary measures and monitoring of hazards behaviours of the people (Morris, 2005). The television broadcasted significant news reports from Japan and these specifically try to update concerned individuals about the ongoing progress of disaster among the Japanese. For instance, the television has become the channel of information how Japan had correspondingly attempted to solve the issue in facing the aftermath of the disaster. It is therefore clear that television has the potential to trigger emotion by simply trying to give visual details of specific information. People may not be focusing on the opinion of the news report but they are actually after of what they see. Through the live telecast of tsunami in Japan, people from around the world had enough information about the potential destructive forces of nature.

Company law Reform Bill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Company law Reform Bill - Essay Example These directors together are called the Board of Directors. Since all the directors cannot execute individually they elect one among them as a Managing Director. The board of Directors will take all policy decisions in the Board meeting and the Managing Director executes the decision taken by the board. The proviso 741(1) deals with the definition of directors, this proviso is an inclusive provision which says the directors include properly appointed directors, "de jure" directors like "governor", not properly appointed directors such as "de facto directors" and "shadow" directors. [Charlesworth & Morse, Company Law (1999)] a De facto Directors: De facto Directors are those who act openly as directors and they claim to be directors on they being performed the functions of the directors, though they are not properly appointed. These directors are recognized as de facto directors for only that period during which they acted so. [Charlesworth & Morse, Company Law(1999)] b It is a decided law that person who claims to be director by de facto has to make a plea and establish that he has undertaken such function of the company which would have been undertaken by the director only, but not simply to show that he has under taken the and discharged the functions which the management below the directors could not be under taken and discharged. Re Richborough Furniture Ltd 2 In this case it was held that De facto director should satisfy either of two tests such as (a) he is sole person directing the affairs of the company or (b) he was acting on par with other directors in directing the affairs of the company, if there are other properly appointed directors. Secretary of State for Trade and Industry v. Lating 3 In this case while approving the two tests it was held that by simply satisfying either of the two test is not sufficient to claim as de fact director, but he should be still acting as such, which means that the de facto director is recognized as director only during the period in which he is acting as per the two tests. Once he ceased to be acting as such he would be ceasing to be de facto director. The court in another case Secretary of State for Trade and Industry v. Hickling 4 approved this Shadow Directors: Section 741(2) of the companies act 1985 defines shadow director as 'a person in accordance with whose directions or instructions the directors of a company are accustomed to act'. Professional persons on whose, advise the directors act are excluded from this definition. Shadow directors are vicariously liable for the action of the directors whom they appoint or control. This provision aims at preventing the persons escaping from the liability under the shelter of a board of marionette. The directors of a subsidiary who are working under the directions of the directors of the parent company then the directors of the parent company are called the shadow directors. (LS Sealy, Cases and Materials in Company Law) c Re Hydrodam(Corby)ltd 1 The court held in this case that one has to satisfy the four conditions for adjudicating a person as shadow director such as (i) he is properly appointed or de facto director (ii) the director directs the other directors in which manner they have to function in relation to the company (iii) the other directo

Evidence-based effects of exercise on the body Research Paper

Evidence-based effects of exercise on the body - Research Paper Example There were thirty four participants, 18 females and 16 males who were divided into two groups, one group had to read for forty minutes every day for a span of two weeks, where as the other group had to exercise for forty minutes for the same time span of two weeks. The results showed there was a difference noticed in the people who were doing exercise than those who were reading. There was a significance difference noticed in the body image of participants, with no effect on body weight or shape. This study is very beneficial for exercise promotions as the findings of this research paper can help in forming a strategy in order to encourage exercise and workout programs. However, it is also argued that this study is very limited as it has not included or studied other moderators affecting forces that might affect the change in body image and/or weight. Therefore, the findings of this study has to be further studied and different outside forces have to be included and tested for the accuracy and reliability of this research (Appleton,

Present day Societal Value of Labor Unions Essay Example for Free

Present day Societal Value of Labor Unions Essay A labor union is an organization of employees of the same profession, working for either one employer or many employers. It is formed by people with common skills, knowledge and skills pursuing the same dream, to be at the top of their carriers. Labor unions are normally funded by contributions from employee’s salaries. They are headed by officials who are elected by members after a given period of time. For labor unions to be effective they need to be run by people with the right management education, skills, knowledge and experience for them to deliver to their respective members. Labor union officials are accountable to its members and need to be responsible enough, for every action they take, has consequences on all the members. Labor unions are formed and run as per the constitution, according to the Labor act of any nation and the related articles. Labor unions have a societal value in the present day, because members expect some return that is either qualitative or quantitative. Although employers may be opposed to the idea of labor unions, the Government gives the right atmosphere for their formation and existence. Labor unions that are not beneficial to the members do not last long, because they are democratic institutions and members have a right to quit and join new unions. (Albert, 2001 p. 20-31) Organized institutions: Labor unions provide a forum for dealing with multiple issues at once and as group. Actions taken by labor unions are across the board; they relate to all the employees and their respective employers. Issues tackled do not relate to individuals but to the whole group of members. Members of the same profession get to meet and reason together, in order to better their living standards and their economic well being. Solutions to issues facing the employees are to the advantage of all the member. Labor unions need to be registered as per the required regulations, prescribed under the Labor union’s Act of any Country. They are therefore recognized and protected by law. They are therefore expected to deliver as per the necessary standards, without bias to either the employees or the employers. Issues presented by individual members are discussed by the officials and if need be, they are communicated to the rest of the members, in order to understand who the union is acting for, at any particular time. Protection of Employee’s rights: Labor unions are formed on the principle, â€Å"united we stand, divided we fall†. Any skilled, semiskilled and unskilled employee has rights and privileges at his place of work, which the employer may not be willing and ready to fulfill. It’s the duty of the labor union to negotiate for its members, with the employers for their rights to be realized. Single employees may not have a better understanding of their rights and may be oppressed by the employer. In groups/labor unions they will have the power to speak as one and demand the employer’s attention. (Becky 2002 p. 11-32) Some employee’s rights include; Better working, conditions and environment; This mostly applies to semiskilled and unskilled workers who are found at industrial plants. Most employers may find it expensive to provide them with the right working gear and devices like, gloves, masks and gum boots. Such employees will therefore be risking their lives at the expense of their incomes and need someone to come in between. Such employees may not be housed at the plant and will be expected to report to work early in the morning. The labor union will come in and negotiate for their transport system; whereby they are either picked by bus early in the morning or they are given an adequate transport allowance to enable them be punctual at work. The single employees who demand better working conditions and environment may risk their jobs because the management may consider them to be unruly. Some manufacturing companies, like tobacco industries, pollute the environment which the employees are working in. they may therefore be exposed to contracting diseases, hence poor health. It is the duty of the labor unions to negotiate healthy environment to ensure that employees utilize their skills well and advance in their carriers. A well balanced remuneration package; Employees need a salary package relatively proportional to their contribution towards the company’s profitability. Some employers may want to retain a lot of their earnings and therefore deny their laborers/employees good compensation. For a worker to be productive his or her financial and economic needs should be well catered for, by the employer. A stressed up employee may not utilize his education and knowledge adequately to develop his carrier. Some employers may want to pay their employees less than the other professionals with the same education, knowledge and skills. This is psychologically unfair and the labor union steps in to ensure a uniform salary package across the board for people with the same skills and knowledge. If the employer does not obey, the labor union can sue on behalf of the employee with costs being met by the employer, as per the relevant regulation and case ruling. Employee Motivation; For employees to perform better, they need their spirits lifted through a well organized motivation system. These lack in some organizations and it is the duty of labor unions to negotiate for the members items like, overtime payments, study leaves and bonus payments. It is through such motivation systems that employees can utilize their skills, education and knowledge in order to have some carrier growth and development. Labor unions therefore assist their members in meeting their short-term goals and keep them focused at their long-term goals. Better working conditions at the present make it possible for employees to realize ambitions and dreams. (Norman 2000 p. 4-54) Retirement benefits; Labor unions ensure that every employer has retirement arrangements in place for its employees. Employees should not retire with any funds to survive on because this may depress them at their old age. Retirement age is therefore maintained across all companies and those who their contracts are terminated in advance are given some golden handshake to survive on. Labor unions also deal with cases where contracts are terminated before maturity and those affected are restored and any damages are catered for by the employer. The labor unions therefore ensure that the society’s dependency ratio is not increased due to early terminations or people retiring with out finances. Professional Networking: Through labor unions professionals get to meet and share ideas relating to their carrier field. People with the same knowledge, skills, education and experience get to network and assist one another emotionally and this boosts their morale. Meetings organized by labor unions for its members provide a forum for discussions to be held among members. Motivational speakers are also invited to give speech which inspires the members. Carrier growth and development: Labor unions ensure that members are constantly being updated on the latest skills and knowledge during union meetings. Discussions held also advance the awareness of their professional field details. Members also get to know the requirements for their movement up the carrier ladder. Study leaves negotiated for by the labor unions provide carrier development. Some employers may want to maintain employees as casual, which is not as per the law; labor unions therefore come to negotiate for their permanent employment. This enables both carrier growth and development. Go slows: When employers do not want to give in to requests by the employees, laborers may present this to their unions and they may result in mass action. Demonstrations/go slows organized by labor unions are recognized by the laws and no one of the employees is victimized. workers’ plights are therefore considered by their employers and their demands are negotiated for by both the employer and the union officials. Creation of jobs: Labor unions are run by officials, elected by the members based on their education, knowledge and experience, to manage the union. These officials are well remunerated, from the contributions by the members. They therefore earn a living out their efforts to manage the unions. In the society, dependency ratio is therefore reduced while idleness by the unemployed and crime levels go down. These officials are replaced from time to time and the jobs are given to new people. Mediator between the government and the employees: Labor unions negotiate with the Government for labor standards to be maintained for the sake of the employees. The government is therefore kept on check by the union to ensure that there are statutory regulations on the, minimum wage, working conditions/environment and unfair dismissals. Labor unions also provide some level of awareness to the professionals in terms of, what they should expect from the employer and what their level of productivity to their employers should be, in order to experience carrier growth and development. (Timothy, Roni, 2003 p. 23-34) References: Albert S. (2001). Labor unions. New York. Cristol Publishers. Becky T. (2002). Societal Value of Labor Unions. New Jersey. Western Press. Norman C. (2000). Enforcement of Labor unions. Los Angelus. Southern Publishers. Timothy S, Roni B. (2003). Labor Unions in united States. Boston. Cribal Publishers.

Citizen of the United States Essay Example for Free

Citizen of the United States Essay I would define a citizen as someone, who was born in, or to a certain place, who is guaranteed certain rights in the place that they were born in. Citizenship in the United States means that a person is a legally recognized member of the nation. Each citizen has equal rights under the law. All citizens have certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities. Americans who are not citizens have many of the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities of citizens. However, they do not have such important rights as the right to vote in elections, serve on juries, or hold elected office. Means that a person is recognized as a legal member of the nation  gives each person certain rights and privileges, e.g., the right to vote and to hold public office  means each person has certain responsibilities, e.g., respecting the law, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries  explain that citizens owe allegiance or loyalty to the United States; in turn they receive protection and other services from the government Nothing is more important to America than citizenship; there is more assurance of our future in the individual character of our citizens than in any proposal I, and all the wise advisers I can gather, can ever put into effect in Washington. Warren G. Harding (1920) Rights of individuals. Citizens have rights.  personal rights, e.g., to associate with whomever one pleases, live where one  chooses, practice the religion of ones choice, travel freely and return to the United States, emigrate  political rights, e.g., to vote, speak freely and criticize the government, join organizations that try to influence government policies, join a political party, seek and hold public office  economic rights, e.g., to own property, choose ones work, change employment, join a labor union, establish a business  Citizens not only must be aware of their rights, they must also exercise them responsibly and they must fulfill those responsibilities necessary to a self-governing, free, and just society. No governmental action, no economic doctrine, no economic plan or project can replace that God-imposed responsibility of the individual man and woman to their neighbors. Herbert Hoover (1931) Citizens have rights. personal responsibilities, e.g., taking care of themselves, accepting responsibility for the consequences of their actions, taking advantage of the opportunity to be educated, supporting their families civic responsibilities, e.g., obeying the law, respecting the rights of others, being informed and attentive to the needs of their community, paying attention to how well their elected leaders are doing their jobs, communicating with their representatives in their school, local, state, and national governments, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries, serving in the armed forces

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay

Innovative Practices For The Coworking Movement Sociology Essay One of the grimmest predictions about the future was described by Robert Putnam in his work on social capital. He envisaged low likelihood of participation in community life, smaller groups of friends, even less happiness, and lower perceived quality of life (Putnam, 1995). Furthermore, the enthusiasts of globalization and internet predicted that since people do not have to be together in order to work together, so simply they will not be (Florida, 2003). Both of these statements are deemed fallacious when recent innovative developments like coworking spaces are considered. Instead of dividing people and further rupturing community life, they reintroduce collaboration and community building through establishing an innovative office design that is being implemented worldwide. This paper will be based on theoretical definition of social movement by Mario Diani (2000). The reasoning why this definition is the most useful will be presented in following sections. Then, Dianis (2000) defining attributes will be applied to coworking as a movement, and from this analysis, the conclusion will naturally flow that the following thesis is supported: coworking can be seen as a social movement because it satisfies its definitional elements i.e. networks of informal integration, shared beliefs and solidarity, and collective action. For the analysis of coworking, mixed methodology will be used: informal observation and interviews at three coworking spaces: betahaus Berlin, Hub Amsterdam, Coworking Cologne, and one emerging coworking space Hub Berlin. Additionally, available secondary sources will be analyzed: research and case studies present in literature, internet network data, websites, and forums. The focus will be, however, on the internet sources due to the novel ty and continuous transformations of the movement. Coworking has been present for centuries, but the first forms of collaboration appeared in the beginning of the 20th century. Artists from around the world gathered in Paris to live and work. One of the establishments, La Ruche, was created by Alfred Boucher to accommodate live/work space for artists. The place became a community and was centred on work of its residents (Jones, Sundsted, Bacigalupo, 2009). Bizzarri (2010) mentions associated offices that appeared in United States of America during the crisis of 1929. These offices gathered workers from the same or various professions working in one office as a cost-cutting strategy. She links the crisis of 1929 to the recession of 2008 as a catalyst of bourgeoning coworking spaces around the world (Bizzarri, 2010). The term coworking was first used by Bernie DeKoven in 1999 to describe virtual connectivity i.e. online tools of collaboration (DeKoven, 2000). In a context of a physical space, it was used by Brad Neuberg in 2005 (Alas, 2010) even though coworking spaces, in fact, already existed before that time. The vigorous spread of coworking did not start until the already mentioned crisis of 2008. Nowadays, it is extremely hard to assess the size of the movement with different incarnations of coworking emerging. For example, Centre for Social Innovation in Toronto was launched in 2004 and merges both coworking philosophy and multi-tenant nonprofit centre principles (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010). What exactly is coworking? It can be used in three different ways as Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) state: [As] a proper noun to describe a movement the core values of coworking are A verb to describe an activity Im coworking with my friends at local cafe. An adjective to describe a space Souk is a coworking space in Portland' (p. 8). Movement Coworking movement has many principles that are shared between its members. The main value is that coworking spaces are about social connectedness, gathering, sharing, and collaborating. There are, however, a number of conditions that must be satisfied, in order for a viable coworking space to operate. Jones, Sundsted, and Bacigalupo (2009) describe it as a coworking recipe: Start with community. Blend like-minded people of different backgrounds together thoroughly. Add openness. Share ideas, thoughts, knowledge and problems in equal parts. Sprinkle collaboration on top. Ingredients will meld together to create new flavour. Add healthy amounts of sustainability. This will help maintain the recipes structure and prevent it from falling apart. Wrap in accessibility. Make sure all ingredients are given proper opportunity to interact. Enjoy! (p. 15) The movement build on such principles also is directed against isolation that streams from the type of work the coworkers are performing. Usually, it is some form of knowledge creation, data transformation, or a creative industry-related work. Sometimes, the members of the movement express unacceptability of corporate culture and its work structure (typical 9-5 jobs in artificially separated cubicles). Coworking as a movement has either outspoken or implied social change as a value. First of all, it is changing work/live relationship, and leads to sustainability in many ways. Second, the coworking members work often on projects related to social innovation and change. The honourable mention of social change-related coworking spaces is network of the Hubs (Centre for Social Innovation, 2010)Â  [2]Â  . Bizzarri (2010) underlines that one of the innovative factors of coworking is the sociality of the work and the value of relations face to face (p. 204). This aspect is crucial in coworking movement, because its enthusiasts aim at creating a thriving community rather than simply a workplace. Activity As previously mentioned, coworking incorporates individuals with mostly knowledge creation type of work and designers or artists. In most cases, they are not employed by the same organization, but sometimes small businesses are a part of a coworking space. Additionally, there is a high degree of independent work involved, but there is also a collaboration factor. People from different professions and types of work engage in dialogue, exchange ideas, and add an interesting perspective to problems defined by others, in order to create innovative ideas and become more productive. Coworking space becomes a place where unlimited intellectual resources are stored, and it multiplies ones network of professional and informal connections which is beneficial to individual work life and mental health. Various individuals have different patterns of use of coworking spaces. Freelancers sometimes need only a desk with internet connection and a telephone. Artists might need bigger space and flexibility. Some might use coworking spaces on a full-time or part-time basis, and some only for once in a while drop-in sessions. These offices also target people (so called nomad workers) who travel and frequently change their place of living so they cannot maintain an office. This initiative has also a myriad of occupations, and they include professionals from diverse sectors. Additionally, they come from different organizational structures: start-ups that cannot afford and office yet, small businesses that choose not to have own office, non-profits, freelancers, sometimes individuals that work for large companies as consultants, etc. Space The organization of the shared working environment is very important for a proper operation of a coworking office. Hibbert, Kimble, and White (2010) from the School of Architecture and Design at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee wrote an engaging manual on designing a coworking space with a number of technical pointers. In general, it should be flexible and have an open design, so it can accommodate many different events and activities through moving furniture, and separators that play a role of walls. Additionally, coworkers should have access to it at any time of day or night which sometimes is not possible due to security concerns. Coworking spaces usually have following amenities: internet, photocopy and printing, fax machines, mailbox, kitchen facilities, meeting rooms, coffee/tea machines, storage, and sometimes audio-visual equipment. Spaces at different stages of development might not have all of mentioned amenities or have more advance office equipment. Coworking spaces can accommodate members by offering them private storage place, or sometimes offer them separate office depending on the characteristics of the space. Different patterns of use mean different level of financial contribution for the maintenance of the office. Coworking spaces have a tiered system depending on the amount of time spent at the office, and sometimes the area needed for operations. Usually, coworking spaces do not make a profit, and at times they can run only with the help of grants and subsidies. Social Movement Definition A lot of social and political phenomena have been called social movements in the past, many of them not rightfully. There are so many theories that it is very difficult to pinpoint the exact definition of a social movement. Theoretical frameworks like collective behaviour, relative deprivation, resource mobilization, rational choice, political opportunity structure, new social movement, political process, and framing, all of them define social movements in diverse ways and focus on their different facets (Pickvance, 2003). Many buzz words surround the term social movement: collective action, social change, status quo, and social conflict among others. These terms are themselves difficult to define. Therefore, the plethora of ambiguities allows for calling numerous phenomena social movements, when they are really not. Mario Diani (2000) in his paper The concept of social movement analyzes four different theories in order to find a common thread between them and to arrive at all-encompassing, but yet detailed definition of the notion. The author bases his definition of collective behaviour perspective (Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian), resource mobilization theory (John McCarthy and Mayer Zald), political process approach (Charles Tilly), and new social movements theory (Alain Tourraine and Alberto Melucci). Some of these theories are contradictory in their assumptions and definitional elements. For example, Charles Tillys definition is very constrictive while it focuses on the excluded as the ones trying to get access to established polity and political process (Tilly, 1978 cited in Diani, 2000) which would be only one type of social movement according to other theories. Melluci (1977, cited in Diani, 2000), conversely, sees them as not always concurrent with political conflict, but that they might be dormant and engaged in cultural production. Diani (2000) posits that all of these theories focus on different aspects of social movements; resource mobilization theory and the political process approach look at their development rather than the causes of their emergence. New social movement theory tries to place social movements within larger structural and cultural changes (Diani, 2000). Even though these four theories might be different in certain aspects, Diani finds four common threads that all of the theories emphasize: Networks of informal interaction Shared beliefs and solidarity Collective action on conflictual issues Action which displays largely outside the institutional sphere and the routine procedures of social life (p.162) The last factor, lack of institutionalization, is disputed by Diani, who believes that some degree of institutionalism might play a role in social movements development while some movement begin in institutionalized organization or maintain the movement in a dormant stage under auspices of an institution still exerting social change and cultural production. Therefore, it is not included in the final definition. Diani presents a caveat that the institutionalization is a factor that should be closely observed because it might overpower the influence of a social movement. Additionally, an important distinction is made: while Sierra Club might be a part of an environmental social movement, itself it is not social movement and should not be regarded as such. Furthermore, political parties fulfill the requirements of Dianis definition, but he underlines that they act at the level of interest representation, and this functional level does not let them to be regarded as social movements. Fro m the discussion on these aspects and other implications of theoretical boundaries, Diani (2000) arrives at following definition: Social movements consist in networks of informal interaction between a plurality of individuals, groups and organizations, engaged in a political and/or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity (p. 168). Diani (2000) disregards a number of characteristics in his definition that are usually associated with social movements i.e. extra-institutional tactics, civil unrest, disruptive political protests, use of power, etc. He claims that these aspects are simply characteristics of the varieties of social movements, and should not be included in the main and all-encompassing definition. Similar to Diani, definition of Goodwin and Jasper (2009) sees longevity of a movement more important than protests or riots: Social movements are conscious, concerted, and sustained efforts by ordinary people to change some aspect of their society by using extra-institutional means. They are more conscious and organized than fads and fashions. They last longer than a single protest or riot. There is more to them than formal organizations, although such organizations usually play a part. They are composed mainly of ordinary people as opposed to army officers, politicians, or economic elites. They are protesting against something. (Goodwin Jasper, 2009, p. 3) Therefore, the definitions are comparable and do not invalidate other theorists claims. In some degree, Goodwin and Jasper (2009) put more importance on extra-institutional means, protests, and riots; however, this does not make Dianis claims (2000) unsound, but further strengthens its validity and all-encompassing nature; in effect, this theoretical basis will be used to analyze coworking as a social movement. Urban Social Movements Urban social movements are a type of social movements that focus on structural transformation of the urban system and space (Castells, 1977 cited in Pickvance, 2003). Interest in this type of movements has been quite strong, but partially separated from the main discourse on social movements. As Pickvance (2003) discusses, urban social movements theories place emphasis on the effects rather than mobilization factors or the interaction between social movement and political systems. The intrinsic focus of urban social movements theories is the effects of various events, protests, and exposure to given principles and values. Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) elaborates that the effects are rather seen in their potential rather than real outcomes. In other words, immediate consequences might be limited and not identifiable; however, changes in consciousness among participants and potential future support may be favourable to the viability of a social movement and the actual long term social changes. For this reason, writing on urban social movements was developing separately from the mainstream discussion on social movements, even though the main influence that contributed to its development was the rise of interest in new social movements. Pickvance (2003) elaborates: Although some writers have classed urban movements as new social movements, more usually urban movements have been categorized as an old social movement like the labour movement, because of the allegedly material character of their demands (p. 106) This typological distinction is quite important for the theoretical basis against which social movement might be tested against. It shows that social movements theories are diverse and that they describe approaches that result in dissimilar definitions. This predicament is important when discussing a given social movement that might fulfill the definitional elements of one theory and not the other. It also demonstrates that some social movement theories are developing outside the mainstream theoretical discussion, and a collective attempt at deriving a uniform definition is simply not present or still in very preliminary stages. Using Dianis definition (2000) presents a number of dangerous predicaments. It might seem too broad and all-encompassing. It puts emphasis on the common threads of the four main theories and presents relatively detailed boundaries of its definitional elements, however, there is still a degree of uncertainty and vulnerability in its possible use. Additionally, there is a tendency to use certain theories for movements with which we agree and different ones with which we disagree. In case of Diani, his definition is general, and different nuances are not accounted for in it, therefore, it might be quite unproblematic to recognize any movement or trend that resembles social movement as one of them. Application of the theoretical framework Common elements found by Dianis (2000) in the four main theories of social movements are to be examined in this section and applied to coworking as a potential social movement. Definitional nuances and evidence how coworking serves these elements are to be presented in an organized manner. First, coworking is recognized as built on the basis of networks of informal interaction. Second, shared beliefs of coworking as a movement are discussed: what they are and how they are implemented. Third, it will be shown to that extent social movements partake in collective action on conflictual issues and potential conflicts and adversaries will be identified. Finally, the relationship of the movement with institutional aspect and routine procedures of social life will be examined. Even though this last theme is not included in the final definition presented by Diani (2000), its evaluation is essential while it helps assessing coworking as a social movement against the theories that value lack o f institutionalization as an important feature of the definition. Networks of informal interaction First element of the definition concerns the relationship between its members: [it] is a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups, and/or organizations (Diani, 2000, p. 8). All thinkers in Dianis analysis realize the importance of networks. Also Goodwin and Jasper (2009) and Castells (1977, cited in Pickvance, 2003) recognize informal interaction between people as an important requirement for a social movement. Especially, McCarthy and Zald (1977, cited in Diani, 2000) talk about different categories that characterize the organization of social movements: they mention social movement organizations, constituents, adherents, and bystander publics, all of them important members adding to the social movement. Diani (2000) characterizes this element as: Tightly clustered networks which promote the circulation of essential resources for an action (information, expertise, material resources) as well as of broader systems of meaning. Thus, networks contribute both to creating the preconditions for mobilisation and to providing the proper setting for the elaboration of specific world-views and life-styles (p. 163). Theorists in the recent time were discussing a lot about information flows in a network society. Castells (2001, cited in Bizzarri, 2010) pointed to the information and communication technologies as changing the relation between discretion and control in the organization of working. The most focus is placed on the value of knowledge, the role of knowledge as capacity of action, the openness, the mobility, the collaboration, the accumulation of social and cultural capital, the flexibility of workers to adapt their skills to different situations and jobs (Bizzarri, 2010, p. 198). Many pointed this innovativeness and its importance in workplaces. This notion is recently present everywhere, governments switch to network governance, participatory decision making, and horizontal collaboration. In this organizational setup, people from different sectors, organizations, occupations, and departments work together (citation needed somewhere here). A lot of these collaboration methods are cente red on the abilities of information and communication technologies. Coworking is based on this idea. It brings people with different experiences to a common space to work and socialize, but the technology is only a tool not a mean in coworking space. Centre for Social Innovation (2010) in the booklet Emergence stresses the importance of relying on a network as a strategy of well operating coworking space. The organizational design is structured on production, distribution, and access of information, all of the members of the space are supposed to learn from each other. It resembles a bit wikipidia model, or open-source software, where all of the interested individual contribute to create and accomplish bigger projects. Coworkers work on individual work assignments, and such an open structure of their work is simply not possible, however, there exists possibility to constantly consult with other and collaborate on each others project. People coexist in a physical space and that aspect is very important. Similarly to government-made horizontal collaboration, coworking spaces have usually flat organizational structure (Bizzarri, 2010), therefore there is no decision makers, all of the decisions are made communally. In some spaces, the governance structure might be rather heterarchycal, and it will have some members overseeing certain aspects of a coworking space, so, for example, there will be a person dealing with administrative side of coworking space operations, there might be a communications person, technical maintenance, cleanliness, etc. However, these positions are not introduced in order to create a hierarchy with some people in power or not, but is done to ensure adequate operations of a space. Many of the changes that are happening in organization theory come from a bigger movement of industrial changes that call for a networked interaction. Wilson (1995) underlines that the geography of a new competitive model is more flexible than mass production and involes creation of netoworks which is so important to innovation diffusion (p. 646). In fact, industrial districts that aggregate small and medium sizes enterprises are perfectly able to compete with large commercial firms (Wilson, 1995). This is due to their network character and sharing resources. Even though those firms might be centred in a given geographical region, they are still open for the global influences. Wilson (1995) mentions endogenous development approach which emphasizes the unique factors of the spatial milieu in which the activity occurs, while at the same time recognising the embeddedness in the larger structures (p. 649). Coworking is a space that does not enclose the members because their work focuses on external environments: clients, companies they work for, families, and friends. It is a system that brings them together and creates a community that shares many things. Coworking is not only about working in a shared space; it has also a social element to it. Endogenous development must include non-economic values a behavioural and socio-psychological change from homo economicus to homo sociales. John Friedman (1988) reflects the same idea when he calls for a transcendence of the division between life space and economic space (Wilson, 1995, p. 650). This is very important for people at coworking spaces. Coworking space is not only a place to work at and collaborate, it is also a place where people become socially involved with each other on a higher level than usual work places. Many coworking spaces have once or twice a week common meals, some of them even introduce that custom daily. This has profound effect on their relations. Addionally, coworking spaces introduce workshops and events that are not targeted at professional development only. They are also open to the community; so for example, they will invite a yoga instructor, or will have workshops on mental health, leadership, good food and living. In some degree, this agrees with Wilson (1995) discussion of regulationist writing that shows that the wage and strength of the union will decrease and more pressure will be focused on human development and less tangible factors than productivity: behaviour, cultural and social changes. In short, it is the beginning of change fr om the mechanistic and deterministic to holistic and interconnected (Wilson, 1995, pp. 653-654). Coworking spaces have this idea embedded in them. They are not workspaces anymore; they are a way of life. Shared beliefs and solidarity Social movements are characterized by the fact that its members share beliefs and a sense of belongingness which is definitely visible in coworking spaces. The boundaries of coworking spaces are not defined by the physical borders of the office, but by the collective identity shared by people who are members, visitors or simply supporters of a coworking space. Diani (2000) describes this aspect as: Collective identity is both a matter of self- and external definition. Actors must define themselves as part of a broader movement and, at the same time, be perceived as such, by those within the same movement, and by opponents and/or external observers. (p. 164) Collective identity helps to define the boundaries of the movement, but does not mean that the movement is homogenous. There is still a plethora of ideas, orientation, opinions, and perspectives in the coworking movement that can come from the shear fact that coworkers come from different occupations and are exposed to different theories, experiences, and perspectives. Citizen Space is one of the first coworking spaces. It was created in San Franscisco by the movement leaders Tara Hunt, Chris Messina and Brad Neuberg. Its website has a section entitled Our Philosophy and it contains Collaboration: One of the great benefits of working in a coworking space is that you will meet all sorts of people with all sorts of knowledge. Openness: We believe in transparency and openness. In a world where people are free, but ideas are not, only a few benefit. When ideas are free, everyone benefits. Therefore, we encourage open spaces and discussions. Sorry, no NDAs allowed.Community: We thrive on connections and mutual support here. It is important that everyone give into as well as benefit from the strong (international) community coworking has become. Accessibility: In order to be fully open, we must make the effort to be accessible to all. This means that we endeavor to create both a financially and a physically accessible space. We are committed to this prin ciple and welcome feedback on how we can make it even more accessible. All of those values are shared between other members of the coworking movement. These are basic principles that spring from the model work that is present in the coworking spaces. Collaboration cannot be closed; it always has an open model. As Wilson (1995) named future innovations as a new sense of purpose and process on a local level (p. 645), this is in fact what joins those people together in a relatively uniform and with minimum conflict. The people that surround the movement are mostly creative workers that are new leaders in todays economy. They are mostly self-employed people, nonprofits, innovation searching individuals who in turn advance urban movements and economies (Schreck, 2006). This class of people, knowledge creators, Florida (2003) calls the creative class. They drive innovation and current global economic growth trends (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010). They are employed in many professions, but their main purpose is to create new ideas, technology and creative cont ent. In addition to changing the landscape of the economy, knowledge creators seek new ways to configure their work environment to promote individuality and allow for more flexibility. They demand the autonomy of working anywhere and the social interaction of a traditional office. (Hibbert, Kimble, White, 2010, p. 43) In general, it is the members of creative class who are the most prone to join the coworking movement. Additionally there is a degree of entrepreneurship present in coworking spaces. A lot of members are entrepreneurs, some of them focus on social change. It was the most visible in Hub Amsterdam where the wall of members highlighted the social change focus of its members. Coworking itself is entrepreneurial initiative, and therefore it characterizes its members. Diani (2000) puts a pressure on the entrepreneurial aspects of social movements by citing Gusfield (1981): Social movements condition and help constitute new orientations on existing issues, in so far as they contribute to the existence of a vocabulary and an opening of ideas and actions which in the past was either unknown of unthinkable (Gusfield, 1981, p. 325 cited in Diani, 2000, p. 9) Conclusion Paragraph of this section Collective action on conflitual issues Diani (2000) finds that all four theories share also an aspect of collective action on conflictual issues. He writes: Social movement actors are engaged in political and /or cultural conflicts, meant to promote or propose social change either at the systemic or non-systemic level (Diani, 2000, p. 166) This factor consists of two parts: collective action and conflictual issues and theorists differ in what exactly this means. Some theorists put a specific emphasis on conflict situation as a fundamental element of the concept (Turaine, Melucci, Tilly). Other look at the social movement as leading to social change and that is, according to them, the main aspect of the concept (Turner and Killian, McCarthy and Zald, Pickvance and Castells). There is a number of ways we can understand conflict. It can be a conflict on political, social, or cultural sphere, but it does not necessarily have to engage in an open conflict, protests, and active dispute at the systemic level. It might be also conflict with political decision makers, civil rights dispute, etc., but Diani (2000) also mentions: Several authors maintain that the true bulk of social movement experience has to be found in the cultural sphere; what is challenged is not only the uneven distribution of power and/or economic goods, but socially shared meaning s as well, that is the ways of defining and interpreting reality. Social movements tend to focus more and more on self-transformation. (p. 165) Therefore, social movements focus as well on conflicts that arise in a private sphere, on the individual level. It attacks the way we think about ourselves, our self-definition, and lifestyle choices. The second part of the actor is collective action which can be understood as some sort of activity that leads to achievement of a goal or a set of goals by more than one person, in this case, a social movement. Diani (2000) does not address the issue whether the activity should be overt and proclaimed. Dormant social movements might not actively engage in open collective action, but might affect individuals in a more covert way, similarly to how Pickvance (2003) describes the effects of urban social movements. This might not be an issue for Diani (2000) however; some caution will be taken when a favourable judgement is granted in the absence of full evidence. In regards to conflict and collective action, coworking as a social movement has not, in some degree, openly proc

Was Colonial Culture Uniquely American? :: American America History

"Was Colonial Culture Uniquely American?" "There were never, since the creation of the world, two cases exactly parallel." Lord Chesterfield, in a letter to his son, February 22nd, 1748. Colonial culture was uniquely American simply because of the unique factors associated with the development of the colonies. Never before had the conditions that tempered the colonists been seen. The unique blend of diverse environmental factors and peoples caused the development of a variety of cultures that were mostly English, part European, and altogether original. The unique conditions, both cultural and environmental, of each colony produced a unique culture for that colony. And while each colony had it's share of groups, the mix of people and their cultures in each colony was not evenly distributed. In some colonies there was a high mix of people, while in others one group dominated. These regional differences caused the colonies not to develop one unique culture, but instead a group of distinctive cultures, each unique, and each regional. The regional differences and cultures among the colonies can be divided into four basic groups. These groups each dominated a different region, but they weren't the only group in their respective region. There were the Puritans of New England, the Quakers of the middle colonies, the Anglicans of the southern colonies, and the Scots-Irish of the Appalachian backcountry (Madaras & Sorelle, 1995). The culture of New England was one unique to New England. The northern colonies of New England were dominated by the Puritans, and settled primarily for religious reasons. The environment of New England consisted of rocky soil, dense forests, and large numbers of fish (Sarcelle, 1965). The culture that developed in New England was appropriate to such conditions. The soil, being rocky, had to be worked constantly and patiently (Sarcelle, 1965). Patience and persistence were trademarks of Puritan ethics. The lush forests provided for a shipbuilding industry , while the fish provided a source of food (Brinkley, 1995). The New Englanders became fishermen, farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and traders (Sarcelle, 1965). To the south of New England were the middle colonies. There the soil was fertile, and the weather more acclimated to farming (Sarcelle, 1965). Rivers flowed west toward the frontier, enabling transportation. The middle colonies, as opposed to the relatively Puritan dominated New England, were very diverse in people. A mixture of Dutch, German, Swedes, English and other smaller groups were present in middle colonial cities such as New York (Higginbotham, 1996).

Analytical Essay :: Analytical Essays

The construction last year of a shopping mall in downtown Oak City was a mistake. Since the mall has opened, a number of local businesses have closed, and the downtown area suffers from an acute parking shortage. Arrests for crime and vagrancy have increased in nearby Oak City Park. Elm City should pay attention to the example of the Oak City Mall and deny the application to build a shopping mall in Elm City. Analyzing this argument brings up a lot of questions to whether this is a relevant argument or not. A lot of assumptions are made without enough facts to support them. It can be said that the mall could have directly or indirectly been a part of the problems. The problems are: Increase in crime and vagrancy, businesses closing, and a parking shortage. It is not logical to say that it is sole cause of the situation. This argument states that the building of the mall is the reason that some businesses have went out of business. To say that the mall and the closes of the businesses go hand in hand is not totally accurate. There are a number of reasons that could have led to the closing of the businesses. For one example, you could say that a change in the economy might have led to the closures. If this occurred after the holidays, it could say that people spent most of their money during this time and it could have hurt some businesses beyond the point of repair. Also, this argument doesn?t state what kinds of businesses had troubles. If it was something as in a grocery store, the mall could not be the cause because the mall doesn?t interfere directly with the food industry. Also, a majority of small businesses succumb to larger ones. This area is not exempt to the possibilities that this is what could have happened. This argument does not state if mergers of smaller companies related to the statement. The argument tries to tie together that a parking shortage was caused by the Oak City Mall. While in turn the mall would bring increased foot traffic, it would also bring along more commerce to the city, thus businesses should not have struggled as previously mentioned. A number of factors could have added to the parking shortage. With most communities now, population increases every year.

The Success of Judaism Essay -- essays research papers fc

Judaism has survived throughout history by being flexible and by admitting foreign influences into its practice. Its success in the 21st century depends on its ability to continue doing this in response to the pressures of modernity. Judaism has endured the challenges imposed upon it, by its ability to preserve deep-rooted traditions of the past. It is through maintaining customs from preceding times that defines the foundations of modern day Jewish practice, be it through observance, prayer or habit. In combination to this, its capacity to be versatile and incorporate outside influence has served to maintain its popularity as a major world faith. In order to continue its future religious success, Judaism must persist upholding the traditions that it stands for. However, in the light of pressures of modernity that arise through social change, including feminism and assimilation it must also incorporate aspects of outside influence to promote its popularity. Judaism has survived through emerging itself as a faith of tradition, including those developed in both Diasporic times as well as the biblical period. It is through the upholding of various forms of tradition that has united the global Jewish population. This is evident within prayer, observance and custom. As revealed through the practice of the Orthodox Jewish population, tradition plays a major part of defining the faith through the close following of Halakah. This is evident within the environment of Orthodox synagogue services; women are prohibited from wearing pants, those who are married must cover their heads and a mekhitzah segregates the seating between men and women. Despite social change that has provided freedom from such restrictions, Orthodox Judaism has held onto these traditions, which have acted in defining it through continuity. If such aspects were removed from the service, it would alienate the Orthodox Jewish community, as it is through such customs that have b een observed throughout generations and therefore characterizes the continuing existence of the religion. It is not solely the Orthodox community that have relied upon tradition as a means to exist. Within all strands of Judaism, tradition has played a major part in the continued existence of the faith. This is evident in relation towards Jewish practice, such as through customs observed during festivals. This includes th... ...xistence. Ultra-Orthodox Jews largely disassociated themselves from mainstream American culture, which they viewed as a threat to Jewish identity. Judaism has continued and will continue to exist while there is a choice of denominations which will accommodate various needs and lifestyles. It is through the combination of maintaining elements of traditional continuity while incorporating aspects of modernity which leads to a popular faith. Although this suggests that Conservative Judaism stands as future of Jewish existence, it is because there are multiple movements within the faith that permits Judaism to continue to survive. With the differing variations of the Jewish faith, it provides and will continue to provide a choice to the modern Jew that reflects the lifestyle that he or she chooses to adopt. Bibliography Scheindlin, Ray A Short History of the Jewish People Oxford University Press (1998) Robinson, George Essential Judaism Pocket Books (2000) Freedman, Samuel Jew vs. Jew Simon and Schuster (2001) Bloom, Stephen G. Postville: A Clash of Cultures in Heartland America Harcourt (2000) Harris, Lis Holy Days, The World of a Hassidic Family Simon and Schuster (1995)

Pre-Romanticism

The Romantic penned (1785-1830) Contrast with Neoclassicism The replacement of reason by the imagination The shift from a mimetic to an expressive orientation for poetry, and indeed all literature. Pre-romanticism & Romanticism This period marks the end of Augustan Age.The main themes of Augustan Age were: reason rationality no feelings typical conception of the high social class The American Revolution (1775-1783) where the declaration of independence stated that America was an independent nation. The Industrial Revolution (1750-1850)transformed Britain from agricultural to industrial country In rural communities the destruction of omen industry was accompanied by a rapid growth of the process of enclosing the old open-field and communally worked farms into privately owned agricultural holdings. The peasants deprived of their lands, were forced to go to work in factories Mechanization meant a new form of slavery The economic and social ills were clearly seen by the people, suffering was largely confined to the poor: the diseases of industrial towns, the misery of child labor, and the crowds of underpaid workers.The suffering of the new class, the proletariat, led o the first strikes The Great French Revolution (1789) which introduced the democratic ideals: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity for everybody Revolution in France took a violent course: the accession to power by Jacobin extremists; the â€Å"September Massacres† of the nobility in 1792 followed by execution of the royal family brought England into a war against France(1793) Revolutionary and Napoleonic period in France (1789-1815) Under the influence of the Revolution the Irish peasants plotted a rebellion against English landlords. It broke out in 1798 but was cruelly drowned in blood Ideals of the Romanticism As a consequence to the chaotic lifestyle they tried to find a shelter in nature The feelings are: sadness, melancholy and meditation Romanticism was a movement against the progress of b ourgeois civilization It was an effort to do away with the injustice, the exploitation of man by man. The poets of this period are called graveyard poets because the countryside became place of death and contemplation The romanticists made emotion, and not reason, the chief force of their works. This emotion found its expression chiefly in poetry

Everyday Use Essay Essay

In Everyday physical exertion Maggie gained the most emotionally because she finally got something she valued after years of stamp she didnt deserve the things she desired. Dee, Maggies baby, ordinarily could civilize what she wished from her m another(prenominal)s home such(prenominal) as the churn top from a butter churn her family had for years. Mean eon Maggie usually assumed it was the way life went and that other people were more deserving of the things they wished for than she was. When Dee asked her fret for two quilts their grand set about had hand do, her mother told her no and that the quilts were promised to Maggie.In this case Maggie finally gained something she wished for and was shown she deserved it too. Part of Maggies belief that she didnt deserve the things she wanted sprung from her babys ability to get everything she asked for. Dee, as it would search endlessly original everything she asked for when she asked for it. When Dee was graduating from high i nstruct she requested a yellow organdy dress to wear on the level of her graduation which her mother purchased fro her. This showed Maggie that Dee run acrossd many things she wanted, while she remained with the petty(a) she already had, neer asking for a great deal.When Dee asked her mother for the hand mold churn top their relatives had made her mother gave it too her with no problems, even though it was an important piece from their family. This gave Maggie another mannikin of how her child got things she would have liked to keep. Maggie ofttimes felt that she didnt deserve as many good things as her infant got. Maggie was often stuck with lesser than that of what her sister authorized and believed that was how life worked for her.As a boor Maggie was badly burned in a house fire while her sister escaped just fine, this resulted in her happening insignificant and shuffling everywhere she went stressful to hide her face. The fire having burned and pit her made her be lieve she deserved the discredit hand of all things in life. Maggies school was closed when she was young while Dee went on through full education, this made Maggie feel simple and uneducated. The advantage of her sisters education made Maggie feel lesser and undeserving.Before the events in the story Maggie felt more like an castaway and unimportant. When Maggies mother gave the quilts to Maggie instead of Dee it ball over Maggie and helped her change her perspective on how she should be treated. Dee who always got what she wanted begged and begged for the quilts and expected to receive them. Maggie also expected so and believed her sister was more deserving of the quilts than she was, she told her mother to contact the quilts to Dee. Maggies mother instead gave the quilts to Maggie terrible everyone and giving Maggie something she deserved for once.In the peculiarity Maggie was shown she deserved just as much as everyone else and that life didnt always give certain people w hat they wanted. Her sister who had always gotten everything she desired was not presumption what she wanted for once. Showing her that their was a little fairness to the way things work. While Maggie received what her sister had asked for, getting something she wanted for the root time. This showed Maggie she deserved a little more than she was getting. Over all the event with the quilts stony-broke Maggies mindset and gave her a impertinent view on how she was treated.